Junkers Ju 88

Ju 88
Ju 88
	A Ju 88A over France in 1942
General information
Type	Tactical / dive / torpedo bomber; Night / heavy fighter; Reconnaissance aircraft;
Manufacturer	Junkers
Designer	Ernst Zindel, W. H. Evers, and Alfred Gassner
Primary users	Luftwaffe Finnish Air Force ; Regia Aeronautica ; Royal Romanian Air Force
Number built	15,183
History
Introduction date	1939
First flight	21 December 1936
Retired	1945 (Luftwaffe) 1951 (France)
Variants	Junkers Ju 188

The Junkers Ju 88 is a twin-engined multirole combat aircraft designed and produced by the German aircraft manufacturer Junkers Aircraft and Motor Works. It was used extensively during the Second World War by the Luftwaffe and became one of the most versatile combat aircraft of the conflict.

The Ju 88 originated from a Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) requirement issued in 1934 for a new multipurpose aircraft. Junkers was one of several firms to respond, producing two separate design studies that produced both the Ju 85 and Ju 88. The design work was headed by Junkers' chief designer Ernst Zindel. The Ju 88 was envisioned to function as a so-called Schnellbomber ("fast bomber") that would evade interception by enemy fighters of its era by flying at high speed. On 21 December 1936, the first prototype performed its maiden flight. The performance of the third prototype was highly favourable, resulting in the competing Henschel Hs 127 and Messerschmitt Bf 162 being abandoned. During late 1937, the Ju 88 was developed into a heavy dive bomber, but this feat proved to be too stressful for the airframe even with modifications.

A series of technical problems troubled the aircraft's development, delaying its introduction to squadron service from 1938 to September 1939, by which point the Second World War had already started. The Ju 88 first saw action with the Luftwaffe during the invasion of Poland. It would subsequently be deployed into numerous theatres of the conflict, including the Norwegian campaign, the Battle of France, the Battle of Britain, the invasion of Yugoslavia, the invasion of Greece, the Siege of Malta, the North African campaign, and the Eastern Front amongst others. While the Luftwaffe was the primary operator of the Ju 88, numerous other nation's air services also flew the type in quantity during the war; these include the Finnish Air Force, Regia Aeronautica and the Royal Romanian Air Force.

The Ju 88 was one of the Luftwaffe's most important and heavily used aircraft during the Second World War. The aircraft, akin to several other German bombers of the era, served as a bomber, dive bomber, night fighter, torpedo bomber, reconnaissance aircraft, and heavy fighter. Perhaps most unusually, it was adapted into a flying bomb towards the end of the war.^[2] The assembly line ran constantly from 1936 to 1945, building in excess of 15,000 Ju 88s across dozens of variants, making it the most-produced twin-engine German aircraft of the period and the second-most produced bomber of all time behind the four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator. Throughout its production run, the basic structure of the Ju 88 remained unchanged.^[3]

Design and development

Background

The origins of the Ju 88 can be traced back to the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) and the formulation of a new requirement in 1934 that called for a new multipurpose aircraft.^[4] This requirement quickly attracted attention from much of the German aircraft industry. However, in August 1935, the RLM revised its requirements towards the concept of a Schnellbomber, a high-speed bomber that lacked defensive turrets, seated a crew of three, and carried a payload of 800–1,000 kg (1,800–2,200 lb).^[5] This requirement was issued to a total of four aircraft manufacturers, these being Focke Wulf, Henschel, Junkers, and Messerschmitt; all firms except Focke Wulf opted to produce a response.^[4]

Junkers design team opted to perform a pair of design studies in parallel; work began on 15 January 1936.^[4] These studies subsequently produced two distinct, yet similar, aircraft, designated Ju 85^[6] and Ju 88.^[7]^[4] Both were twin-engined bomber aircraft, the main difference between the two being the Ju 85's use of a twin fin (and twin rudder) tail unit while the Ju 88 had a single fin (and rudder) tail unit instead. Following deliberation amongst officials, the RLM decided in favour of the Ju 88.^[4] According, the passed-over Ju 85 was never put into service.^[8]

The detailed design work was performed by Junkers chief designer Ernst Zindel.^[9] He was assisted by Wilhelm Heinrich Evers and American engineer Alfred Gassner.^[10]^[4] Evers and Gassner had worked together at Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America where Gassner had been Chief Engineer.^{[citation needed]} Junkers presented their initial design in June 1936, and were given clearance to build two prototypes (Werknummer 4941 and 4942).^[5]^[4] The first two aircraft were to have a range of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) and were to be powered by two DB 600s. Three further aircraft, Werknummer 4943, 4944 and 4945, were to be powered by Jumo 211 engines.^[5] The first two prototypes, Ju 88 V1 and V2, differed from the V3, V4 and V5 in that the latter three models were equipped with three defensive armament positions to the rear of the cockpit, and were able to carry two 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) bombs, one under each inner wing panel.

Into flight

On 21 December 1936, the aircraft's maiden flight was performed by the prototype Ju 88 V1, which bore the civil registration D-AQEN.^[11] During its first flight, it managed to reach a speed of about 580 km/h (360 mph). On 10 April 1937, the first prototype was lost in an accident.^[11] The third prototype, Ju 88 V3, which made its first flight on 13 September 1937 and was the first to be powered by the Jumo 211A engine, participated in a series of extensive tests at the Rechlin experimental station. According to the aviation authors J.R. Smith and Antony Kay, the results of this evaluation were so positive that all work on the competing Henschel Hs 127 and Messerschmitt Bf 162 was abandoned quickly thereafter.^[12]

Upon reviewing the Ju 88's performance, Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, was reportedly ecstatic; it was allegedly viewed as an aircraft that could finally fulfil the promise of the Schnellbomber.^{[citation needed]} The streamlined fuselage was modelled after its contemporary, the Dornier Do 17, but furnished with fewer defensive guns as a result of the belief still held that it could outrun late 1930s-era fighters. During March 1939, the fifth prototype set a 1,000 km (620 mi) closed-circuit record while carrying a 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) payload at a speed of 517 km/h (321 mph).^[13]^[14]

The first five prototypes had conventionally-operating dual-strut leg rearwards-retracting main gear, however, starting with the V6 prototype, a main gear design debuted that twisted the new, single-leg main gear strut through 90° during the retraction sequence, much like that of the American Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter.^[14] This feature allowed the main wheels to end up above the lower end of the strut when fully retracted^{[N 1]} and was adopted as standard for all future production Ju 88s, and only minimally modified for the later Ju 188 and 388 developments of it. These single-leg landing gear struts also made use of stacks of conical Belleville washers inside them as their main form of suspension for takeoffs and landings.

By 1938, the design had received a series of radical modifications to adapt the Ju 88 to function as a "heavy" dive bomber in response to a request from the RLM.^[14] These changes, which were first implemented on the V8 and V9 prototypes, included the strengthening of the wings, the addition of dive brakes, an extended fuselage, and the number of crewmen being increased to four.^{[citation needed]}

During August 1938, Generalluftzeugmeister Ernst Udet had set out the Takt system of construction for large state-owned firms, including Junkers.^[16] Almost all of the tooling and jigs were produced at the company's facility in Schönebeck; the wing and tail sections were constructed at Halberstadt and Leopoldschall while the fuselage was originally produced as two separate shells that were brought together at Aschersleben. Later on, fuselage construction was broken down further, a decision that made it easier to produce the numerous variations of the Ju 88.^[16] During early 1939, a pre-production batch of ten Ju 88A-0s was completed to conduct service trials of the type; the A-0 series were almost entirely identical to the Ju 88 V10 prototype.^[17]

As the outbreak of the Second World War approached, by the time Luftwaffe planners such as Udet had their opportunities to have their own "pet" features added (including dive-bombing by Udet), the Ju 88's top speed had dropped to around 450 km/h (280 mph). The Ju 88 V7 was fitted with cable-cutting equipment to combat the potential threat of British barrage balloons, and was successfully tested in this role; the V7 also had the Ju 88 A-1 "beetle's eye" faceted nose glazing installed, complete with the Bola undernose ventral defensive machine gun emplacement, and was put through a series of dive-bombing tests with 250 and 500 kg (550 and 1,100 lb) bombs, and in early 1940, with 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) bombs. The A-1 series prototypes were Wrk Nrs 0003, 0004 and 0005. The A-1s were given the Jumo 211B-1 or G powerplants.^[18]^[17]

The choice of annular radiators for engine cooling on the Ju 88, which placed these radiators immediately forward of each engine and directly behind each propeller, allowed the cooling lines for the engine coolant and oil-cooling radiators (integrated within the annular design) to be as short as possible, with integral port and starboard air intakes for cooling the exhaust headers, the starboard inlet also supplying the inlet air for the supercharger.^{[citation needed]}

During autumn of 1938, Dr. Heinrich Koppenberg (managing director of Jumo) assured Göring that a production rate of 300 Ju 88s per month was definitely achievable; indeed, such a rate was achieved during 1940.^[16] However, the pre-war ramping up of production was delayed drastically by developmental problems.^{[citation needed]} Although planned for a service introduction in 1938, the Ju 88 finally entered squadron service (with only 12 aircraft) on the first day of the invasion of Poland in 1939. Production was painfully slow at this point, only a single Ju 88 was being manufactured per week as problems kept cropping up. The Ju 88C series of heavy fighter was also designed in early 1940, but its existence was kept secret from Göring, as he only sought bombers at this time.^{[citation needed]}

Dive bomber

In October 1937, Ernst Udet had ordered the development of the Ju 88 as a heavy dive bomber. This decision was influenced by the success of the Ju 87 Stuka in this role. The Junkers development centre at Dessau gave priority to the study of pull-out systems and dive brakes.^[19] The first prototype to be tested as a dive bomber was the Ju 88 V4 followed by the V5 and V6. These models became the planned prototype for the A-1 series. The V5 made its maiden flight on 13 April 1938, and the V6 on 28 June 1938. Both the V5 and V6 were fitted with four-blade propellers, an extra bomb bay and a central "control system".^[19] Following the release of the bombs, the elevators automatically moved to their full-up position to bring the aircraft out of its dive and into a climb.^[16]

As a dive bomber, the Ju 88 was capable of pinpoint deliveries of heavy loads; however, despite all the modifications, dive bombing still proved too stressful for the airframe, and in 1943, tactics were changed so that bombs were delivered from a shallower, 45° diving angle. Aircraft and bomb sights were accordingly modified and dive brakes were removed. With an advanced Stuvi dive-bombsight, accuracy remained very good for its time. The maximum bomb load of the A-4 was 3,000 kg (6,600 lb), but in practice, standard bomb load was 1,500–2,000 kg (3,300–4,400 lb).^[20]^[21] Junkers later used the A-4 airframe for the A-17 torpedo carrier, which did not have the undernose Bola gondola for a ventral gun position.^[19]^[21]

Fighter-bomber

The Ju 88C series of standard fighter-bomber versions from the C-2 onwards culminated in the Ju 88 C-6, applying experience acquired with the A-4 bomber, equipped with the same Jumo 211J engines but replacing the "beetle's eye" nose glazing with a smoothly curved all-metal nose, pierced only by the barrels of its forward-firing offensive armament.^[22] The C-6 was used mostly as fighter-bomber and therefore assigned to bomber units. As a reaction to the increasing number of attacks on German shipping, especially on U-boats in the Bay of Biscay, from July 1942 it started flying anti-shipping patrols and escort missions from bases in France.^[23]

V./Kampfgeschwader 40 was specifically formed to operate the C-6. The aircraft of V./KG 40 (which was redesignated I./Zerstörergeschwader 1 in 1943^[24]) were a significant threat to antisubmarine aircraft and operated as escort fighters for the more vulnerable Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor maritime patrol bombers. Between July 1942 and July 1944, the Ju 88s of KG 40 and ZG 1 were credited with 109 confirmed air-to-air victories,^[25] at a cost of 117 losses.^[26] They were finally deployed against the Allied Invasion of Normandy in June 1944, incurring heavy losses for little effect before being disbanded on 5 August 1944.^[27] Some Ju 88 variants were also used as radio controlled bombs in the Mistel composite aircraft configuration, by coupling a bomber filled with explosive with a fighter such as the Focke-Wulf Fw 56 or the Messerschmitt Bf 109E.

Attack bomber

The Ju 88P was a specialized variant for ground attack and to function as a bomber destroyer, designed starting from 1942^[28] and produced in small numbers, using examples of the Bordkanone heavy calibre aviation autocannon series, which required the omission of the Bola undernose gondola for clearance. The prototype, derived from a standard Ju 88 A-4, was armed with a 75 mm (3.0 in) anti-tank gun derived from the 7.5 cm PaK 40 installed in a large conformal gun pod under the fuselage. This was followed by a small batch of Ju 88 P-1, which standardized the solid sheet metal nose of the C version for all known examples of the P-series, and used the new 75 mm (3.0 in) PaK 40L semi-automatic gun, also known as the Bordkanone BK 7,5,^[29] which was also meant for use in both the later Henschel Hs 129B-3 dedicated anti-armor aircraft, and a never-achieved production version of the He 177A-3/R5 ground-attack Flak-suppression Stalingradtyp field-improvised version. The Ju 88P-1 was produced in some 40 units, but with the massive cannon installation resulting in a slow and vulnerable aircraft,^[28] it was soon replaced by the Ju 88 P-2, featuring two Bordkanone 37 mm (1.5 in) BK 3,7 guns, whose higher muzzle velocity proved useful against the Russian tanks in the Eastern Front. This aircraft was used by Erprobungskommando 25. The Ju 88 P-3 also used the twin BK 37 guns, and added further armor for the crew, and was delivered at one Staffel of the Nachtschlachtgruppen 1, 2, 4, 8 and 9 for night attacks in the Eastern Front, in northern Norway (NSGr 8) and Italy (NSGr 9).^[28] Finally, the Ju 88 P-4 mounted a smaller-volume ventral gun pod housing a 50 mm (2.0 in) auto-loading Bordkanone BK 5 cannon (the same ordnance used for the field-improvised handful of Stalingradtyp He 177As created) and, in some cases, 65 mm (2.6 in) solid propellant rockets.^[28]

Heavy fighter and night fighter

Ju 88C

The Ju 88 V19 (W.Nr. 0373) was a test bed for the Ju 88C series.^[30] The Ju 88C was originally intended as a fighter-bomber and heavy fighter by adding fixed, forward-firing guns to the nose while retaining some bomb carrying ability of the A-series bomber. The C-series had a solid metal nose, typically housing one 20 mm (0.787 in) MG FF cannon and three 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 17 machine guns. The aircraft retained the ventral Bola gondola under the crew compartment though individual units sometimes removed this to reduce weight and drag to enhance performance. The Ju 88C was later used as a night fighter, and this became its main role.^[31]

The first version of the Ju 88C was the C-1 with 20 aircraft converted from A-1 airframes.^[32] Some of them entered service in the Zerstörerstaffel of KG 30 which became part of II./NJG 1 in July 1940. The C-1 was followed by the C-2 of which 20 aircraft were converted from A-5 airframes with enlarged wingspan. The C-4 became the first production version with 60 produced and 60 converted from A-5 airframes. The C-6, of which 900 aircraft were produced, was based on the A-4 airframe with more powerful engines and stronger defensive armament (single- or dual-mount belt-fed 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 81 or 13 mm (0.512 in) MG 131 instead of drum-fed MG 15 machine guns).

The *Matratze* 32-dipole antenna for the Lichtenstein UHF radar

The C-6 as night fighter was typically equipped with FuG 202 Lichtenstein BC low-UHF band airborne intercept radar, using the complex 32-dipole Matratze antennas. The first four C-6 night fighters were tested in early 1942 by NJG 2. The trials were successful and the aircraft was ordered into production. In October 1943, many C-6s were upgraded with new radar systems. The first new radar equipment was the FuG 212 Lichtenstein C-1. After the UHF-band Lichtenstein radars had been compromised to the Allies in the late spring of 1943, the next development in German AI radar was the VHF-band FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2, discarding the 32-dipole Matratze antennae for the much larger eight-dipole Hirschgeweih (stag's antlers) aerials, required for the longer wavelength SN-2 system.^[33]

Many Ju 88C's had their Bola gondolas modified to hold up to two forward firing 20 mm (0.787 in) cannons. Several C-6 night fighters were equipped with two "Schräge-Musik" upward-firing 20 mm (0.79 in) cannons in trial fittings, and from mid 1943 onward, there was an official field modification kit available for this arrangement.

A small number of the C-series day fighters had their new solid-metal noses specially painted to resemble the bomber A-series' "beetle's eye" faceted clear view nose glazing, in an attempt to deceive Allied pilots into thinking the fighters were actually bombers; the unusual "camouflage" attempt did result initially in a number of Allied aerial losses.^{[citation needed]}

Ju 88R

The Ju 88R series night fighters were basically versions of the Ju 88 C-6, powered by unitized BMW 801 radial engines. The R-1 had 1,147 kW (1,539 hp) BMW 801L engines and the R-2 had 1,250 kW (1,677 hp) BMW 801 G-2 engines.^[34]

One of the first aircraft from the R-1 series that went into service (Werknummer 360 043) was involved in one of the most significant defections from the Luftwaffe. On 9 May 1943, this night fighter (D5+EV), which was stationed with 10./NJG 3 in Aalborg Denmark, flew to the RAF Station at Dyce (now Aberdeen Airport) with its entire crew and complete electronic equipment on board. The fact that Spitfire Vb fighters No.165 (Ceylon) Squadron escorted it towards the end of its flight could indicate that its arrival had been expected.^{[citation needed]} It was immediately transferred to Farnborough Airfield, received RAF markings and serial number PJ876, and was tested in great detail.^[35] The preserved aircraft is on exhibit at the RAF Museum, as one of the first two intact Ju 88s in aviation museums. The Luftwaffe learned of this defection only the following month when members of the crew, pilot Oberleutnant Heinrich Schmitt (son of the former secretary to the ministry for foreign affairs (1923–1929) Gustav Stresemann) and Oberfeldwebel Paul Rosenberger made broadcasts on British radio.^[36]^{[N 2]} The third crew-member, Erich Kantwill, refused to co-operate with the British and was treated as a regular prisoner of war.^{[citation needed]}

Ju 88G

All previous night fighter versions of the Ju 88 used a modified A-series fuselage. The G-series fuselage was purpose-built for the special needs of a night fighter, with the A-series' Bola ventral under-nose defensive gun position omitted for lower aerodynamic drag and less weight, and adding the enlarged squared-off vertical fin/rudder tail unit of the Ju 188. G-1 aircraft possessed more powerful armament and like the earlier R-1, used a pair of 1,250 kW (1,677 hp) BMW 801 radial engines, the G-1 using the later BMW 801G-2 version. Electronic equipment consisted of the then-standard FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 90 MHz VHF radar using eight-dipole Hirschgeweih antennas, which could include fitment of the borderline-SHF-band FuG 350 Naxos radar detector with its receiving antenna housed in a teardrop-shaped streamlined fairing above the canopy, or FuG 227 Flensburg radar detector homing devices that had their own trio of twin-dipole antennae: one on each wing leading edge and one under the tail. One Ju 88G-1 of 7. Staffel/NJG 2 was flown by mistake to RAF Woodbridge in July 1944, giving the Royal Air Force its first chance to check out the VHF-band Lichtenstein SN-2 radar and Flensburg radar detector gear.^[37]^[38]

G-6 versions were equipped with 1,287 kW (1,726 hp) Jumo 213A inverted V-12 engines (using the same redesigned annular radiator cores as the Ju 188s powered by them), enlarged fuel tanks and often one or two 20 mm (0.79 in) MG 151/20 cannons in a Schräge Musik ("Jazz Music", i.e. slanted) installation. These guns were pointed obliquely upwards and forwards from the upper fuselage – usually at an angle of 70°.^[38]

Some of the final G-series models received updates to the engines, using a pair of high-altitude Jumo 213E inverted V-12s with the same revised annular radiator design as the 213As already used, or to the radar, using the mid-VHF band FuG 218 Neptun AI radar with either the standardized Hirschgeweih aerials with shorter dipoles to suit the higher frequencies used, or more rarely the advanced Morgenstern 90° crossed-element, six-dipole Yagi-form antenna. Only a very few Ju 88G-6 night fighters were ever fitted with the semi-experimental FuG 240 Berlin N-1 cavity magnetron based, 3 GHz-band (centimetric) radar, whose dish antenna was housed in a smoothly contoured radome on the G-6's nose.^[39] Only about 15 of the Berlin systems were completed before V-E Day.

Many Luftwaffe night fighter aces, such as Helmut Lent (110 victories) and Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein (87 victories) flew Ju 88s during their careers.

Operational history

Initial operations and the invasion of Poland

The first Ju 88s to be used in squadron service were assigned to the unit Erprobungskommando 88 (Ekdo 88), which was responsible for testing new bomber designs and their crews under hostile conditions.^[40] On 26 September 1939, the unit's first operation was conducted, during which multiple Ju 88s flew over the Firth of Forth with the intention of bombing any British warships present. It is generally believed that no meaningful damage was inflicted to any British vessel during this raid, although future attacks to this area by the type were often more successful.^[41]

A total of 12 Ju 88s saw action during the invasion of Poland. Ekdo 88 selected 12 aircraft and their crews and attached them to 1./Kampfgeschwader 25.^[42]^[40] As a result of its small operational numbers, the type made no meaningful impact.

Battle of Norway

The Luftwaffe committed II./Kampfgeschwader 30 to the campaign under X. Fliegerkorps for Operation Weserübung.^[43]^[41] The unit was equipped with Ju 88s and engaged Allied shipping as its main target. On 9 April 1940, Ju 88s of KG 30 dive-bombed, in cooperation with high-level bombing Heinkel He 111s of KG 26, and helped damage the battleship HMS Rodney and sink the destroyer HMS Gurkha. However, the unit lost four Ju 88s in the action, the highest single loss of the aircraft in combat throughout the campaign.^[44]

Battle of France

The Luftwaffe's order of battle for the French campaign reveals all but one of the Luftwaffe's Fliegerkorps (I. Fliegerkorps) contained Ju 88s in the combat role. The mixed bomber units, including the Ju 88, of Kampfgeschwader 51 (under the command of Luftflotte 3) helped claim between 233 and 248 Allied aircraft on the ground between 10 and 13 May 1940.^[45]^[41] The Ju 88 was particularly effective at dive-bombing. Between 13 and 24 May, I. and II./KG 54 flew 174 attack against rail systems, paralysing French logistics and mobility.^[46] On 17 June 1940, Ju 88s (mainly from Kampfgeschwader 30) destroyed a "10,000 tonne ship", the 16,243 grt ocean liner RMS Lancastria, off Saint-Nazaire, killing some 5,800 Allied personnel.^[47] Despite this, the rival He 111 was more heavily used for offensive bombing during this campaign.^[41]

Some 133 Ju 88s were pressed into the Blitzkrieg, but very high combat losses (as well as accidents) forced a quick withdrawal from action to re-train crews to fly this very high-performance aircraft. Some crews were reported to be more scared of the Ju 88 than the enemy, and requested a transfer to an He 111 unit.^[48] By this time, major performance deficiencies in the A-1 led to an all-out effort in a major design rework. The outcome was a longer, 20.08 m (65.9 ft) wingspan, from extended rounded wing tips that had already been standardised on the A-4 version, that was deemed needed for all A-1s; thus the A-5 was born.^[21] Surviving A-1s were modified as quickly as possible, with new wings to A-5 specifications.^{[citation needed]}

Battle of Britain

By August 1940, A-1s and A-5s were reaching operational units just as the Battle of Britain was intensifying. On 11 August 1940, the first major bombing raid upon Britain by the Ju 88 was conducted against Weymouth and Portland.^[41] Subsequent attacks that month were flown against targets in Portsmouth, Farnborough, Driffield, Brize Norton, and Middle Wallop. On 7 September 1940, the Luftwaffe redirected its attacks towards London.^[49] From October 1940, as a result of the high loss rate, daytime bombing of Britain ceased in favour of night time bombing.^[50]

The Battle of Britain proved to be very costly to the Luftwaffe. The Ju 88's higher speed did not prevent losses from exceeding those of its Dornier Do 17 and Heinkel He 111 stablemates despite being deployed in smaller numbers than either. During 1940, Ju 88 losses over Britain totalled 303 aircraft between July and October 1940.^[51] Do 17 and He 111 losses for the same period were 132 and 252 machines destroyed, respectively.^[52]^[53] Amongst the factors responsible for the high loss rate were the poor coordination between Luftwaffe fighter and bomber aircraft and the austere conditions of the French airfields from where these bombers operated.^[54]

Of all the losses suffered by the Ju 88 at that time, however, a number were due to the tricky behaviour of the aircraft, especially when compared with the proven He 111, and to the crews' lack of experience on the type – many having converted to the Ju 88 only shortly before. Of the 39 losses recorded for July 1940, for example, only 20 were due to enemy action. The others being written off in training accidents, crashes, or malfunctions over mainland Europe.^[51] A series of field modifications were made to make the Ju 88 less vulnerable, including the replacement of the single MG 15 rear machine gun by a twin-barreled MG 81Z machine gun and the fitting of additional cockpit armour.^[32]

One incident involved ground fighting between the crew of an A-1 and soldiers from the London Irish Rifles during the Battle of Graveney Marsh on 27 September 1940. It was the last action between British and foreign military forces on British mainland soil.^[55]

Between January 1943 and April 1944, a smaller scale reprisal bombing campaign was waged using Ju 88s against the British mainland.^[56] On 21 January, almost every available bomber on the Western Front was dispatched to attack London. Attacks continued against various British cities for months but the number of aircraft in each raid dwindled.^[57] In late April, in an attempt to disrupt preparations for the D-Day landings, Ju 88s were redirected towards British ports along the southern coast; these were largely ineffective and thus were abandoned within the space of a month. By August 1944, the Luftwaffe's Ju 88 force had been heavily diminished.^[58]

The Balkans and Greece

The Ju 88 was used by VIII Fliegerkorps during the German invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941. That same month, the type was also used during the German invasion of Greece (Operation Marita); at the start of the conflict, several Ju 88s dropped mines along the approaches to the harbour of Piraeus and bombed ships in the vicinity, which took the port out of action for weeks.^[59]

During May 1941, the German invasion of Crete commenced. On 22 May, numerous Ju 88s, along with various other bomber aircraft of the Luftwaffe, attacked vessels belonging to the Royal Navy's Mediterranean Fleet, reportedly sinking one cruiser, damaging two other cruisers and a single battleship in the process.^[60] Following the Italian surrender in 1943, Ju 88s were also used during the German invasion of the Italian-held Dodecanese Islands, which took place between September and November 1943.

Eastern Front

In advance of Operation Barbarossa, a combination of Ju 86s and Ju 88s were used to systematically map out the western portion of the Soviet Union as part of Germany's pre-invasion preparations.^[32] By the summer of 1941, most of the units equipped with the Dornier Do 17 were upgrading to the Ju 88. With a few exceptions, the majority of the Luftwaffe's bomber units were flying the He 111 and Ju 88 by this point.^{[citation needed]}

On 22 June 1941, the invasion commenced; the Ju 88 units met with instant success, attacking numerous enemy airfields and positions at low level and causing enormous losses for little damage in return. 3./Kampfgeschwader 3 attacked Pinsk airfield in the morning of 22 June 1941. It caught, and claimed destroyed, 60 Soviet bombers on the ground. The 39 SBAP Regiment of the 10 Division SAD actually lost 43 Tupolev SBa and five Petlyakov Pe-2s. Ju 88s from Kampfgeschwader 51 destroyed over 100 aircraft after dispatching 80 Ju 88s to hit airfields. In general the Soviet aircraft were not dispersed and the Luftwaffe found them easy targets.^[61] A report from the Soviet 23rd Tank Division of the 12th Armoured Corps described a low-level attack by Ju 88s on 22 June, resulting in the loss of 40 tanks. However, the Ju 88s were to suffer steady attritional losses. At 0415 on 22 June 1941, III./KG 51 attacked the airfield at Kurovitsa. Despite destroying 34 Polikarpov I-153s, the Ju 88s were intercepted by 66 ShAP I-153s. Six Ju 88s were shot down before the German fighter escort dealt with the threat.^[62] By the end of the first day of the campaign, Ju 88 losses amounted to 23 destroyed.^[63]

Immediately following the initial attacks, it was decided to send Ju 88s to bomb Moscow.^[64] Over a hundred bombers were dispatched on these missions every night during the opening portion of the campaign. The air campaign against the Soviet capital was not sustainable in light of other demands, tapering down to only seven aircraft per night by December 1941.^[64]

Due to the lack of sufficient numbers of Ju 87 Stukas, the Ju 88 was quickly employed in the direct ground support role. This decision resulted in severe losses being incurred from ground fire. Kampfgeschwader 1, Kampfgeschwader 76 and Kampfgeschwader 77 reported the loss of 18 Ju 88s over enemy territory on 23 June. KG 76 and KG 77 reported the loss of a further four Ju 88s, of which 12 were 100% destroyed.^[65]

In the north, the VVS North-Western Front lost 465 aircraft on the ground, 148 of them bombers, to the Ju 88s of KG 1. A further 33 were damaged. Out of a total of 1,720 aircraft deployed by the VVS Northern Front on 22 June,^[66] it lost 890 and a further 187 suffered battle damage in eight days.^[67] The Ju 88s units helped virtually destroy Soviet airpower in the northern sector. Again, the Ju 88 demonstrated its dive-bombing capability. Along with He 111s from KG 55, Ju 88s from KG 51 and 54 destroyed some 220 trucks and 40 tanks on 1 July, which helped repulse the Soviet South Western Front's offensive. The Ju 88s destroyed most rail links during interdiction missions in the area, allowing Panzergruppe 1 to maintain the pace of its advance.^[68]

Ju 88 units operating over the Baltic states during the battle for Estonia inflicted severe losses on Soviet shipping, with the same dive-bombing tactics used over Norway, France and Britain. KGr 806 sank the Soviet destroyer Karl Marx on 8 August 1941 in Loksa Bay Tallinn.^[69] On 28 August the Ju 88s had more success when KG 77 and KGr 806 sank the 2,026 grt steamer Vironia, the 2,317 grt Lucerne, the 1,423 grt Atis Kronvalds and the ice breaker Krišjānis Valdemārs (2,250 grt). The rest of the Soviet "fleet", were forced to change course. This took them through a heavily mined area. As a result, 21 Soviet warships, including five destroyers, struck mines and sank. On 29 August, the Ju 88s accounted for the transport ships Vtoraya Pyatiletka (3,974 grt), Kalpaks (2,190 grt) and Leningradsovet (1,270 grt) sunk. In addition, the ships Ivan Papanin, Saule, Kazakhstan and the Serp i Molot were damaged. Some 5,000 Soviet soldiers were lost.^[70]

Another key use of the Ju 88 was against the Arctic convoys bringing supplies to the Soviets via the ports of Murmansk and Archangel.^[64] Effective attacks against these convoys did not commence until late March 1942; conveys after this point would often lose ships to air-launched torpedoes. Convoy PQ 17 reportedly lost 23 out of 34 ships, which was partially attributed to attacks by Ju 88s.^[71] Later conveys with heavier escorts, which sometimes included aircraft carriers, proved to be far more costly to attack.^[72]

The Mediterranean

During 1940, the first Ju 88s arrived in Sicily. Further units equipped with the type would be transferred to the theatre during 1941 and 1942.^[73] In December 1941, it was decided to launch an aerial campaign against the Allied-held island of Malta. During the Siege of Malta, Ju 88s sought out and attacked Allied shipping across the Mediterranean and also undertook bombing missions against the island itself.^[73] The port area was specifically targeted, as well as any supply ships spotted, in an attempt to deprive the population of key resources; the island's airfields were also attacked, successfully destroying numerous Supermarine Spitfires on the ground during one such attack in May 1942. Ju 88s were often escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters to deter the Allied interception efforts.^[74]

By March 1943, Ju 88 operations in the Mediterranean had become largely confined to night time bombing missions against ground targets.^[75] In response to Allied attacks upon the Sardinian airfields around this time, German aircraft were withdrawn to Sicily and the Italian mainland. By the time of the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, only a single unit equipped with Ju 88s was still stationed on the island.^[75]

North Africa

Ju 88s were used in the North African campaign, where they flew operations in support of the Axis forces in North Africa.

Italian Campaign

Prior to the Allied landings at Reggio and Salerno in early September 1943, there were a total of five Ju 88 units stationed in Italy.^[75] Missions were flown against the arriving troops, helping to bring about a temporary stalemate. A large-scale operation occurred on 2 December 1943 when 105 Ju 88 A-4s, armed with bombs and motobomba circling torpedoes, attacked the Allied-held port of Bari, Italy. The attacking force achieved complete surprise and sunk over 20 Allied ships in the overcrowded harbour, including the U.S. Liberty ship John Harvey, which was carrying mustard gas. About 1,000 people were killed and another 1,000 wounded; many fatalities and injuries were as a result of the release of mustard gas. The attacking force lost one aircraft; the Allies had not assigned any fighters to guard Bari as they thought the Luftwaffe incapable of striking in this strength at this stage of the war. The port was completely closed for three weeks from the damage of the raid, and only resumed full operation in February 1944.^[76]

In December 1943, many of the Luftwaffe's remaining Ju 88-equipped units in Italy were transferred away to other fronts.^[75]

Finnish Air Force

In April 1943, as Finland was fighting its Continuation War against the USSR, the Finnish Air Force bought 24 Ju 88s from Germany.^[77] The aircraft were used to equip No. 44 Sqn, which had previously operated Bristol Blenheims, but these were instead transferred to No. 42 Sqn. Due to the complexity of the Ju 88, the FAF spent most of 1943 training crews on the aircraft, and conducted only a handful of bombing missions. The most notable was a raid on the Lehto partisan village on 20 August 1943 (in which the whole squadron participated), and a raid on the Lavansaari air field (leaving seven Ju 88 damaged from forced landing in inclement weather).^[78] In the summer of 1943, the Finns noted stress damage on the wings. This had occurred when the aircraft were used in dive bombing. Restrictions followed: the dive brakes were removed and it was only allowed to dive at a 45-degree angle (compared to 60–80 degrees previously). In this way, they tried to spare the aircraft from unnecessary wear.

One of the more remarkable missions was a bombing raid on 9 March 1944 against Soviet Long Range Aviation bases near Leningrad, when the Finnish aircraft, including Ju 88s, followed Soviet bombers returning from a night raid on Tallinn, catching the Soviets unprepared and destroying many Soviet bombers and their fuel reserves, and a raid against the aerosledge base at Petsnajoki on 22 March 1944.^[78] The whole bomber regiment took part in the defence against the Soviets during the fourth strategic offensive. All aircraft flew several missions per day, at both day and night, when the weather permitted.^[79]

No. 44 Sqn was subordinated Lentoryhmä Sarko during the Lapland War (now against Germany), and the Ju 88s were used both for reconnaissance and bombing. The targets were mostly vehicle columns. Reconnaissance flights were also made over northern Norway. The last war mission was flown on 4 April 1945.^[80]^[81]

After the wars, Finland was prohibited from using bomber aircraft with internal bomb stores. Consequently, the Finnish Ju 88s were used for training until 1948. The aircraft were then scrapped over the following years.^[80] No Finnish Ju 88s have survived, but an engine is on display at the Central Finland Aviation Museum, and the frame structure of a German Ju 88 cockpit hood is preserved at the Finnish Aviation Museum in Vantaa.

Variants

Ju 88A

Main bomber type with Jumo 211 engines.

Ju 88 A-0: Pre-production aircraft.
Ju 88 A-1: Initial production variant. 895 kW (1,200 hp) Jumo 211B-1 engines
Ju 88 A-2: Jumo 211 G-1 engines.
Ju 88 A-3: Conversion trainer. Dual controls and throttles, various instruments duplicated.

Ju 88 A-4: Improved variant. Longer wingspan, due to redesigned wingtips. Stronger defensive armament. Power provided by Jumo 211 J-1 or J-2 engines producing 1,050 kW (1,410 hp), driving wooden bladed propellers. Reinforced undercarriage. Provision for four external bomb racks.
Ju 88 A-5.: This version actually predates the A-4. Earlier models of Ju 88 upgraded with longer wings and other equipment. Jumo 211B-1, G-1 or H-1 engines all rated at 890 kW (1,200 hp) for take-off.
Ju 88 A-6: Was equipped with a balloon cable fender. A counterweight was mounted in the rear fuselage. Extremely vulnerable to fighter interception, most reverted to the normal A-5 version, fender and counterweight removed.
Ju 88 A-7: Dual control trainer based on the A-5
Ju 88 A-8: This version had balloon cable cutting capabilities, crew reduced to three, Jumo 211F-1 engines
Ju 88 A-11: Factory built tropical version
Ju 88 A-12: Dual control trainer. Ventral gondola, dive brakes and all armament removed.
Ju 88 A-13: Low level assault version. Dive brakes and bomb sight removed. Additional armor for crew, engines and fuel tanks. Armament consisted of bombs and up to 16 MG 17 machine guns housed in gun pods.
Ju 88 A-14: An improved A-4 version, more armor for the crew, Kuto-Nase balloon cable cutters, bomb sight removed.
Ju 88 A-15: Based on the A-4, it featured an enlarged wooden bomb bay, capable of holding 3 tons of bombs. Ventral gondola removed, only two defensive MGs. It was rejected as the bomb bay "bulge" caused too much drag and a thus a reduction in speed.^[82]
Ju 88 A-16: Dual control trainer based on the A-14
Ju 88 A-17: Dedicated torpedo bomber, no ventral gondola. One PVC torpedo rack under each wing replaced the two bomb racks. A long housing on the starboard side of the nose contained the torpedo aiming mechanisms. Crew of three.